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Pyschology Terms & Vocabulary

09/27/2011 by 3icreative

Axon – The part of a neuron that transmits information to other neurons, muscles or glands
Behavior – Observable actions of human beings and nonhuman animals
Behavioral Neuroscience – An approach to psychology that links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes
Behaviorism – An approach that advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior
Case Method – A method of gathering scientific knowledge by studying a single individual
Cell Body – The part of neuron that coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive
Cognitive Neuroscience – A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity
Cognitive Psychology – A field of psychology that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity; Remembering, attending, thinking, believing, evaluating, feeling and assessing; Perception, thought, memory and reasoning
Consciousness – A person’s subjective experiences of the world and the mind
Control Group – One of the two groups of participants created by the manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment that is not exposed to the stimulus being studied
Correlation – The “co-relationship” or pattern of covariation between two variables, each of which has been measured several times
Debriefing – A verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study that psychologists provide to people after they have participated in a study
Demand Characteristics – Those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think an observer wants or expects them to behave
Dendrites – The part of a neuron that receives information from other neurons and relays it to the cell body
Dependent Variable – The variable that is measured in a study
Double Blind Observation – An observation whose true purpose is hidden from the researcher as well as from the participant
Evolutionary Psychology – A psychological approach that explains mind and behavior in terms of the adaptive value of abilities that are preserved over time by natural selection
Cultural Psychology – The study of how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members
Electromyograph (EMG) – A device that measures muscle contractions under the surface of a person’s skin
Empiricism – Originally a Greek school of medicine that stressed the importance of observation, and is now generally used to describe any attempt to acquire knowledge by observing objects or events
Experiment – A technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables
Experiment Group – One of the two groups of participants created by the manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment; the experimental group is exposed to the stimulus and the control group is not
External Validity – A characteristic of an experiment in which the independent and dependent variables are operationally defined in a normal, typical or realistic way
Functionalism – The study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment
Gestalt Psychology – A psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
Glial Cells – Support cells found in the nervous system
Humanistic Psychology – An approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings
Hypothesis – A specific and testable prediction that is usually derived from a theory
Hysteria – A temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions, usually as a result of emotionally upsetting experiences
Independent Variable – The variable that is manipulated in an experiment
Informed Consent – A written agreement to participate in a study made by a person who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail.
Internal Validity – The characteristic of an experiment that allows one to draw accurate inferences about the causal relationship between an independent and dependent variable.
Interneurons – Neurons that connect sensory neurons, motor neurons and other interneurons.
Introspection – The subjective observation of one’s own experiences.
Measure – A device that can detect the measurable events to which an operational definition refers.
Method – A set of rules and techniques for observation that allow researchers to avoid the illusions, mistakes and erroneous conclusions that simple observation can produce.
Mind – Our private inner experience of perceptions, thoughts, memories and feelings.
Motor Neurons – Neurons that carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement.
Myelin Sheath – An insulating layer of fatty material in the brain that surrounds the axons of neurons.
Nativism – The philosophical view that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn (nature); stemmed from Plato.
Natural Selection – Charles Darwin’s theory that the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed to subsequent generations.
Naturalistic Observation – A method of gathering scientific knowledge by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environment.
Neurons – Cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks.
Operational Definition – A description of an abstract property in terms of a concrete condition that can be measured.
Philosophical Empiricism – The philosophical view that all knowledge is acquired (nurture); stemmed from Aristotle
Physiology – The study of biological processes, especially in the human body.
Phrenology – A now defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics ranging from memory to the capacity for happiness are localized in specific regions of the brain.
Population – The complete collection of participants who might possibly be studied.
Power – The tendency for a measure to produce different results when it is used to measure different things.
Psychoanalysis – A therapeutic approach that focuses on bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness to better understand psychological disorders.
Psychoanalytic Theory – Sigmund Freud’s approach to understanding human behavior that emphasizes the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts and behaviors.
Psychology – The scientific study of the mind and behavior; from Greek psyche (mind) and logos (behavior).
Random Sampling – A technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in a sample.
Reaction Time – The amount of time taken to respond to a specific stimulus.
Reliability – The tendency for a measure to produce the same result whenever it is used to to measure the same thing.
Resting Potential – The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron’s cell membrane.
Sample – The partial collection of people who actually were measured in a study.
Sensory Neurons – Neurons that receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord.
Social Psychology – A subfield of psychology that studies the causes and consequences of interpersonal behavior.
Stimulus – Sensory input from the environment.
Structuralism – The analysis of basic elements that constitute the mind; involves breaking down consciousness into elemental sensations and feelings.
Synapse – The junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another.
Theory – A hypothetical account of how and why a phenomenon occurs, usually in the form of a statement about the causal relationship between two or more properties; lead to hypotheses.
Validity – The characteristic of an observation that allows one to draw accurate inferences from it.
Variable – A property whose value can vary of change.
Unconscious – The part of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness but influences conscious thoughts, feelings and actions.

Psychological Resilience & Coping

09/26/2011 by 3icreative

What is resilience?

Psychological resilience is characterized by your ability to bounce back from negative emotional experiences, as well as your ability to adapt to stressful situations.

Coping is defined as the thoughts and behaviors that we use to manage the internal and external demands of stressful situations. Coping styles develop from a mix of our biological makeup (genetics) and personal experience.

Coping is a dynamic process – not a one time event – comprised of a series of responses over time, and which is influenced by our environment.
Coping encompasses a wide variety of actions and reactions, like anger and depression.

Things that promote effective coping include:

Sense of coherence about your life
Sense of purpose or meaning
Sense of humor
Trust in others
Sense that life is worth living
Religious beliefs

Coping styles

Most people use a combination of coping styles, but it depends on the person… and the problem. Coping is process, not a one-time event. The vast majority of things that stress us out are chronic.

Problem Focused Coping – Doing something constructive about the situation; usually developed in childhood. We often see this style of coping in work environments. When there is a solution, problem focused coping is the best option.
Emotional Focused Coping– Regulating the emotional experiences associated with a stressful situation; tend to develop in early adolescence. We typically see this style of coping when someone is not yet ready to solve the problem, and needs to deal with their emotions first. Or, when there is no solution to the problem. For example, people with a chronic or terminal illness often use an emotional focused copying style. There are 2 styles of emotional focused coping:
1. Rumination – Negative recurrent thoughts which can be detrimental to your health
2. Emotional approach coping – Clarifying, focusing on and working through emotional experiences; this has beneficial health affects for people experience chronic pain, or medical conditions like pregnancy and breast cancer.

Other coping styles:

Approach – Uses problem-focused strategies to confront the issues.
Avoidance – Ignoring or burying stress; There is a difference between avoidance and minimizing.

Whether you use avoidance or approach focuse mode makes a difference to your long-term health.

Things to consider when it comes to coping with stress

Are there coping styles or personality traits that make you better at coping with stress than someone else?
Are there strategies that are useful in different situations?

The Immune System & Sickness Behavior

09/26/2011 by 3icreative

Immune system activation affects our brain, and alters our behavior. It can cause:

Fever
Loss of appetite
Lethargy/fatigue
Anhedonia (reduced interest in things we found pleasurable)
Reduced social behavior
Hyperalgesia (sensitivity to pain)
Poor memory/concentration

These non-specific symptoms that accompany immune response are called “sickness behavior.” It occurs because the cytokines (IL-1 and IL-6) produced by macrophages when our non-specific immune system is activated communicate the brain, “I am sick.”

According to Hart (1988), these behavior changes are adaptive, and designed to help promote recovery. They are not a sign of weakness. Rather they are just the body doing what it is supposed to do in order to fight off disease. For example:

The cortisol and catekolines produce energy (needed to produce fever), which slows down bacteria replication.
Reduced activity conserves energy, which is needed to fight disease.

People who are depressed look like they are stressed. In fact, depression is very similar to sickness behavior according to Maes’ macrophage theory of depression (1993/1995) . Major depression activates immune system cells and cytokines in the blood. Cases of depression that are resistant to treatment have been shown to have higher cytokines. When people are administered cytokines to boost their immune system, they get depressed.

Theories of Stress

09/26/2011 by 3icreative

Fight or Flight (Walter Cannon 1932)

When a threat is perceived, the body is rapidly aroused and motivated via the sympathetic nervous and endocrine systems. Fight (attack) is an aggressive response to stress; Flight (flee) is withdrawal. Fight or flight is adaptive and allows you to quickly respond to threats. However, disruption lays groundwork for health problems.

Stress as an Absence (Levine & Ursin)

This theory of stress is based on a lack of control or information. When clear, salient safety clues are provided, stress is reduced. When clues are absent, stress increases. For an example of this, you can look to Martin Seligman’s research on learned helplessness. Seligman’s theory suggests that when placed in an inescapable situation, people will eventually stop trying to escape. And that even when an escape route is provided, they will not attempt to escape. Once you introduce them to the escape, however, they will learn from the experience and respond appropriately. This model assumes stress is more reflexive in nature.

Selye’s General Adaption Syndrome (Hans Selye 1956, 1976)

Selye exposed rats to stressors (extreme cold and fatigue) and observed physiological responses. All of them responded in the same, predictable pattern. Based on this research, Selye theorized that regardless of the stress, people respond with the same physiological patterns and reactions. Overtime, this creates wear and tear on their bodies. Selye’s belief was that this repeated or prolonged exhaustion is what lays the groundwork for disease. Some of the physiological changes Selye noted in chronically stressed individuals include:

Enlarged adrenal cortex
Shrinking of thymus and lymph glands
Ulceration of stomach and duodenum

3 Phases of the General Adaption Syndrome

Alarm – You become mobilized, and ready to meet the threat.
Resistance – You make an effort to cope with threat.
Exhaustion – You may fails to overcome, depleting your physiological resources in the process.

Criticisms of Seyle’s General Adaption Syndrome

Assigns limited role to psychological fators (appraisial of events is important to experiencing stress)
Assumes all responses to stress are the same; not all stressors produced the same endocrine responses. How people respond to stress is dependent upon their personalities, emotions and biological construction.
Researchers bow believe that it’s the chronic activation, not the exhaustion, that leads to damage
Stress is considered an outcome; sometimes people experience effects of stress while or before a stressor

Tend & Befriend (S. E. Taylor, Klein, et al.)

In addition to fight or flight, humans respond to stress with social affiliation and nurtuting behavior toward off-srping. Mor true of women, but also can be observed in men. Oxytocin is released during stressful events, and increases affiliative behavior. Itneracts with estrogen. People with high levels are calmer, and more relaxed.

Appraisal Process ( Lazarus & Folkman 1984)

This psychological view of stress theorizes that people confronted with a new environment engage in a process of primary appraisal to determine the meaning of the event (positive negative or neutral),and their ability to cope with it. In other words, something is only stressful if you think it is! In this model, there is more room for personal empowerment and individual differences. A person’s ability to cope with stress depends on their cognitive ability in both situations.

Lazarus and Folkman developed a “Daily Hassles” self-reporting scale that measured the number of hassles and uplifts in a month. Although it is more accommodating to the daily stress that people undergo – helps us to explain why we feel the way we do RIGHT NOW – it is not as flexible as Cohen’s survey. It does, however, allow for individual perceptions by assigning points to events.

3 Stage Appraisal Process

Primary appraisal – Events are assessed as irrelevant (no impact on well-being), benign positive (positive, pleasurable emotions) or negative/stressful. Negative events are further appraised for harm (already done), threat (assessment of possible future damage) challenge (potential to overcome or profit; typical when an individual has more confident expectations of ability to cope, but may still lead them to experience negative stress).
Secondary appraisal – The stage is an assessment of your coping abilities and resources. Are they sufficient to meet the demand? Responses may be both voluntary and involuntary, but include outcome expectancy (Will my behavior lead to successful coping?), and efficacy expectancy (Can I seriously successfully execute the behavior that will lead to successful coping?).
Reappraisal – Individuals may revise their previous appraisals based on new information. This does not always happen, it is an optimal step in the process. Defensive reappraisals may include an effort to reinterpret past events as more positive… People have a tendency to look back and believe things were better than they did at the actual time, which can be a good self-protective strategy.

Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen)

Cohen’s theory of stress is one based on perceptions, rather than events. Rather than focusing on life events, or the number of events, this theory accounts for individual differences by allowing us to rate our feelings.

This is the most commonly used survey in health psychology today. However, most researchers will combine surveys and/or include a physio-measure in order to get a well-rounded, accurate evaluation.

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SSRS) (Holmes & Rahe)

These psychologists suggested that illness occurs around major life events, and looked at stress as something that requires you to adapt. They created a survey which weighted a list of both positive and negative life events based on severity (last 6 months). There are many criticisms of the SSRS, including:

They only sampled white males
Did not allow for individual differences in perceptions and coping ability. The event that you view as negative or stressful, someone else may view as a positive.
At this point, the study is outdated, and not relevant to today’s lifestyles.

Beware of the SnakeOil Author; Respect the Craft

08/24/2011 by 3icreative

Would you pay someone $1500 to publish your words?

These days, it seems anyone can be a writer, or an author. Getting published is as easy as setting up a blog, slapping together an ebook, or paying someone to publish your work.

In fact, for a mere $1500 you can bang out a 1200-word article and have it appear in hardcover alongside “best-selling authors” who have spent decades earning their stripes. After all, why waste time earning credibility as an author when you can simply buy it?

Call me old school, but I actually respect my craft. I’ve invested the time and money to professionally study both classic and modern authors, and my bookshelves are brimming with my favorites: Fitzgerald, Shakespeare, Tolkien, Garcia Marquez, Rice and a collection of children’s literature, among others. I’ve been known to read cereal boxes and milk cartons, and occasionally and oh-so carefully, correct a professor.

To me, writing isn’t just a profession. It is one of my loves. And paying someone to publish my words just to see my name in print would equate to something much worse than being a snakeoil salesman. It’s something no self-respecting writer would do.

At least that none I know.

Thankfully, I’m not the only one that feels this way… There’s a special notation in the American Heritage Dictionary to address the frauds that try to pass themselves off as more than they are:

Usage Note: … The verb author, which had been out of use for a long period, has been rejuvenated in recent years with the sense “to assume responsibility for the content of a published text.”…. The sentence He has authored a dozen books on the subject was unacceptable to 74 percent of the Usage Panel, probably because it implies that having a book published is worthy of special lexical distinction, a notion that sits poorly with conventional literary sensibilities and seems to smack of press agentry.

Note the part about assuming responsibility for the content of a published text… There’s also clarification that states an author is someone who practices writing as a profession – meaning, of course, that they get paid to create, and not vice versa.

I feel sorry for these snakeoil authors. They don’t see the forest through the trees…

The benefits of earning your stripes far outweigh the ego boost of instant credibility – You don’t have to be a starving artist, but making a real effort to learn and polish your skills will not only make you a better writer, it will earn you the respect of other writers. And of your fans. On the flip side, when people discover (and they always will) that the ONLY reason your name is in print is because you bribed a publisher with green just so you could boast that you’re a “best-selling author” – you’ll INSTANTLY lose the credibility you paid so dearly for. With no REAL credits to your name, you’ll become a laughingstock. You might even be called a fraud. On the flip side, getting a paid gig that you’ve earned by gaining recognition for your talent over time, and from your peers, will make it that much sweeter (and true) when you say you’re a writer and author.
You’re a victim, allowing yourself to get preyed upon – Yes, there is a money-making scam behind this system – and YOU are the sucker. The publishers take your money, and then rely upon you to buy and sell their books. If you the words you write suck and they don’t resonate with your audience, they don’t care… Because they already made their money. After all, you already paid cash for the 500 copies in your garage… (No wonder it can be called a best-seller!) But hey, at least you can say you published a book, right?

Thankfully, these shams and quasi-authors are easy to spot. Google them. Google their publisher. Ask what they do FOR A LIVING. In fact, ask a lot of questions. How did they get gig? Who is their agent? Did they have a draw, and what were the royalties? Do they have any more books published? What was the editorial process like?

Then use the brain God gave you. If they’re a snakeoil author, they won’t be able to answer your specific questions without squirming. And if they claim to have written a recent best-seller and clearly aren’t working in the industry, and in fact have ZERO prospects, run. Fast. Trust me, you don’t want any of what they are selling.

Their willingness to trade integrity and respect for the craft for personal gratification is shameful. And presenting their pseudo-work as more than it really is seems like an indicator of a much bigger personality flaw. Perhaps poor self-esteem is driving an overwhelming need to feel important. Maybe taking the easy way out and cutting corners is their norm, rather than the exception to the rule. Or maybe, the postage-paid status symbol is compensating for a lack of real talent, a desperate attempt necessary to manipulate the unsuspecting and oh-so-willing sheep into buying their sub-par wares.

Just like the snakeoil salesman, I can’t take these wanna-be-writers seriously. They’re the type of people who spend a day visiting campus, and then say “they went to Harvard Law School.” Or they spend a week earning a certificate in a psuedo-science like NLP, and then spout expertise in neuroscience. Full of half-truths and exaggerations, these fluff-over-substance types will happily mislead you in any area, comfortable that they can always say they never “lied” if called on the carpet. But if you dig, you’ll find the facts don’t usually support their brash claims.

My advice? Steer clear, because their approach to life seems to ensure nothing but trouble if it becomes entangled with yours.